ABOUT RANI LAXMI BAI

Rani Lakshmi Bai was the queen of the princely state of Jhansi, which is located on the northern side of India. She was one of the most leading personalities of the first war of India's independence that started in 1857. In this article, we will present you with the biography of Rani Lakshmibai, who was an epitome of bravery and courage. Early Life She was born to a Maharashtrian family at Kashi (now Varanasi) in the year 1828. During her childhood, she was called by the name Manikarnika. Affectionately, her family members called her Manu. At a tender age of four, she lost her mother. As a result, the responsibility of raising her fell upon her father. While pursuing studies, she also took formal training in martial arts, which included horse riding, shooting and fencing. To know the complete life history of Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi, read on. In the year 1842, she got married to the Maharaja of Jhansi, Raja Gangadhar Rao Niwalkar. On getting married, she was given the name Lakshmi Bai. Her wedding ceremony was held at the Ganesh temple, located in the old city of Jhansi. In the year 1851, she gave birth to a son. Unfortunately, the child did not survive more than four months. In the year 1853, Gangadhar Rao fell sick and became very weak. So, the couple decided to adopt a child. To ensure that the British do not raise an issue over the adoption, Lakshmibai got this adoption witnessed by the local British representatives. On 21st November 1853, Maharaja Gangadhar Rao died. Invasion During that period, Lord Dalhousie was the Governor General of British India. The adopted child was named Damodar Rao. As per the Hindu tradition, he was their legal heir. However, the British rulers refused to accept him as the legal heir. As per the Doctrine of Lapse, Lord Dalhousie decided to seize the state of Jhansi. Rani Lakshmibai went to a British lawyer and consulted him. Thereafter, she filed an appeal for the hearing of her case in London. But, her plea was rejected. The British authorities confiscated the state jewels. Also, an order was passed asking the Rani to leave Jhansi fort and move to the Rani Mahal in Jhansi. Laxmibai was firm about protecting the state of Jhansi. The war Jhansi became the focal point of uprising. Rani of Jhansi began to strengthen her position. By seeking the support of others, she formed a volunteer army. The army not just consisted of the men folk, but the women were also actively involved. Women were also given military training to fight a battle. In the revolt, Rani Lakshmibai was accompanied by her generals. From the period between Sep-Oct 1857, Rani defended Jhansi from being invaded by the armies of the neighboring rajas of Orchha and Datia. In January 1858, the British army headed it's away towards Jhansi. The conflict went on for two weeks. Finally, the Britishers succeeded in the annexation of the city. However, Rani Laksmi Bai managed to escape along with her son, in the guise of a man. She took refuge in Kalpi, where she met Tatya Tope, a great warrior. She died on 17thJune, during the battle for Gwalior. It is believed that, when she was lying unconscious in the battle field, a Brahmin found her and brought her to an ashram, where she died. For her immense effort, she is referred to as the 'Icon of the Indian Nationalist Movement'. Throughout the uprising, the aim of Rani was to secure the throne for her adopted son Damodar. Her story became a beacon for the upcoming generations of freedom fighters. Lot of literature has been written on the life history of Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi. Heroic poems have been composed in her honor.

Indian Rebellion of 1857
May – July 1857

A rumour that the cartridges supplied by the East India Company to the soldiers in its army contained pork or beef fat began to spread throughout India in the early months of 1857. On 10 May 1857 the Indian Rebellion started in Meerut; when news of this reached Jhansi, the Rani asked the British political officer, Captain Alexander Skene, for permission to raise a body of armed men for her own protection and Skene agreed to this. The city was relatively calm in the midst of unrest in the region but the Rani conducted a Haldi Kumkum ceremony with pomp in front of all the women of Jhansi to provide assurance to her subjects,[when?] and to convince them that the British were cowards and not to be afraid of them.

Till this point, Lakshmibai was reluctant to rebel against the British. In June 1857, men of the 12th Bengal Native Infantry seized the fort containing the treasure and magazine, and, after persuading the British to lay down their arms by promising them no harm, broke their word and massacred the European officers of the garrison along with their wives and children. Her involvement in this massacre is still a subject of debate. An army doctor, Thomas Lowe, wrote after the rebellion characterising her as the "Jezebel of India ... the young rani upon whose head rested the blood of the slain". Four days after the massacre the sepoys left Jhansi having obtained a large sum of money from the Rani, and having threatened to blow up the palace where she lived. Following this as the only source of authority in the city the Rani felt obliged to assume the administration and wrote to Major Erskine, commissioner of the Saugor division explaining the events which had led her to do so. On 2 July Erskine wrote in reply that he requested her to "manage the District for the British Government" until the arrival of a British Superintendent. The Rani's forces defeated an attempt by the mutineers to assert the claim to the throne of a rival prince who was captured and imprisoned. There was then an invasion of Jhansi by the forces of Company allies Orchha and Datia; their intention however was to divide Jhansi between themselves. The Rani appealed to the British for aid but it was now believed by the governor-general that she was responsible for the massacre and no reply was received. She set up a foundry to cast cannon to be used on the walls of the fort and assembled forces including some from former feudatories of Jhansi and elements of the mutineers which were able to defeat the invaders in August 1857. Her intention at this time was still to hold Jhansi on behalf of the British.

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ABOUT MAHARANA PRATAP

Born: May 9, 1540 in Kumbhalgarh, Rajasthan
Father's Name: Maharana Udai Singh II
Mother's Name: Rani Jeevant Kanwar
Died: January 29, 1597 in Chavand
Maharana Pratap was born on 9th May 1540 in Kumbhalgarh, Rajasthan. His father was Maharana Udai Singh II and his mother was Rani Jeevant Kanwar. Maharana Udai Singh II ruled the kingdom of Mewar, with his capital at Chittor. Maharana Pratap was the eldest of twenty-five sons and hence given the title of Crown Prince. He was destined to be the 54th ruler of Mewar, in the line of the Sisodiya Rajputs.

In 1567, when Crown Prince Pratap Singh was only 27, Chittor was surrounded by the Mughal forces of Emperor Akbar. Maharana Udai Singh II decided to leave Chittor and move his family to Gogunda, rather than capitulate to the Mughals. The young Pratap Singh wanted to stay back and fight the Mughals but the elders intervened and convinced him to leave Chittor, oblivious of the fact that this move from Chittor was going to create history for all times to come.

In Gogunda, Maharana Udai Singh II and his nobles set up a temporary government of the kindom of Mewar. In 1572, the Maharana passed away, leaving the way for Crown Prince Pratap Singh to become the Maharana. However, in his later years, the late Maharana Udai Singh II had fallen under the influence of his favorite queen, Rani Bhatiyani, and had willed that her son Jagmal should ascend to the throne. As the late Maharana's body was being taken to the cremation grounds, Pratap Singh, the Crown Prince decided to accompany the dead body of the Maharana. This was a departure from tradition as the Crown Prince did not accompany the body of the departed Maharana but instead prepared to ascend the throne, such that the line of succession remained unbroken. Pratap Singh, in deference to his father's wishes, decided to let his half-brother Jagmal become the next king. However, knowing this to be disastrous for Mewar, the late Maharana's nobles, especially the Chundawat Rajputs, forced Jagmal to leave the throne to Pratap Singh. Unlike Bharat, Jagmal did not willingly give up the throne. He swore revenge and left for Ajmer, to join the armies of Akbar, where he was offered a jagir - the town of Jahazpur - in return for his help. Meanwhile, Crown Prince Pratap Singh became Maha Rana Pratap Singh I, 54th ruler of Mewar in the line of the Sisodiya Rajputs.

The year was 1572. Pratap Singh had just become the Maharana of Mewar and he had not been back in Chittor since 1567. His old fort and his home beckoned to him. The pain of his father's death, and the fact that his father had not been able to see Chittor again, troubled the young Maharana deeply. But he was not the only one troubled at this time. Akbar had control of Chittor but not the kingdom of Mewar. So long as the people of Mewar swore by their Maharana, Akbar could not realize his ambition of being the Jahanpanah of Hindustan. He had sent several emissaries to Mewar to get Rana Pratap to agree to sign a treaty but the letter was only willing to sign a peace treaty whereby the sovereignty of Mewar would be intact. In the course of the year 1573, Akbar sent six diplomatic missions to Mewar to get Rana Pratap to agree to the former's suzerainty but Rana Pratap turned down each one of them. The last of these missions was headed by Raja Man Singh, the brother-in-law of Akbar himself. Maharana Pratap, angered that his fellow Rajput was aligned with someone who had forced the submission of all Rajputs, refused to sup with Raja Man Singh. The lines were completely drawn now - Akbar understood that Maharana Pratap would never submit and he would have to use his troops against Mewar.

With the failure of efforts to negotiate a peace treaty in 1573, Akbar blockaded Mewar from the rest of the world and alienated Mewar's traditional allies, some of whom were Maharana Pratap's own kith and kin. Akbar then tried to turn the people of the all-important Chittor district against their king so they would not help Pratap. He appointed Kunwar Sagar Singh, a younger brother of Pratap, to rule the conquered territory, However, Sagar, regretting his own treachery, soon returned from Chittor, and committed suicide with a dagger in the Mughal Court. Shakti Singh, Pratap's younger brother now with the Mughal army, is said to have fled the Mughal court temporarily and warned his brother of Akbar's actions.

In preparation for the inevitable war with the Mughals, Maharana Pratap altered his administration. He moved his capital to Kumbhalgarh, where he was born. He commanded his subjects to leave for the Aravali mountains and leave behind nothing for the approaching enemy - the war would be fought in a mountain terrain which the Mewar army was used to but not the Mughals. It is a testament to the young king's respect amongst his subjects that they obeyed him and left for the mountains. The Bhils of the Aravalis were completely behind him. The army of Mewar now raided Mughal trade caravans going from Delhi to Surat. A section of his army guarded the all important Haldighati Pass, the only way to get into Udaipur from the North. Maharana Pratap himself undertook several penances, not because his finances forced him to do so, but because he wished to remind himself, and all his subjects, why they were undertaking this pain - to win back their freedom, their right to exist as they wished. He foreswore that he would eat from leaf-plates, would sleep on the floor and would not shave. In his self-inflicted state of penury, the Maharana lived in mud-huts made from mud and bamboo.

In 1576, the famous battle of Haldighati was fought with 20,000 Rajputs against a Mughal army of 80,000 men commanded by Raja Man Singh. The battle was fierce though indecisive, to the Mughal army's astonishment. Maharana Pratap's army was not defeated but Maharana Pratap was surrounded by Mughal soldiers. It is said that at this point, his estranged brother, Shakti Singh, appeared and saved the Rana's life. Another casualty of this war was Maharana Pratap's famous, and loyal, horse Chetak, who gave up his life trying to save his Maharana.

After this war, Akbar tried several times to take over Mewar, failing each time. Maharana Pratap himself was keeping up his quest for taking Chittor back. However, the relentless attacks of the Mughal army had left his army weaker, and he barely had enough money to keep it going. It is said that at this time, one of his ministers, Bhama Shah, came and offered him all this wealth - a sum enabling Maharana Pratap to support an army of 25,000 for 12 years. It is said that before this generous gift from Bhama Shah, Maharana Pratap, anguished at the state of his subjects, was beginning to lose his spirit in fighting Akbar.

In one incident that caused him extreme pain, his children's meal - bread made from grass - was stolen by a dog. It is said that this cut into Maharana Pratap's heart deeply. He began to have doubts about his resolute refusal to submit to the Mughals. Perhaps in one of these moments of self doubt - something each and every human being goes through - Maharana Pratap wrote to Akbar demanding "a mitigation of his hardship". Overjoyed at this indication of his valiant foe's submission, Akbar commanded public rejoicing, and showed the letter to a literate Rajput at his Court, Prince Prithiraj. He was the younger brother of Rai Singh, the ruler of Bikaner, a State established some eighty years earlier by the Rathores of Marwar. He had been compelled to serve Akbar because of his kingdom's submission to the Mughals. An award-winning poet, Prithiraj was also a gallant warrior and a longtime admirer of the brave Maharana Pratap Singh. He was astonished and grieved by Maharana Pratap's decision, and told Akbar the note was the forgery of some foe to defame the Mewar king. "I know him well," he explained, "and he would never submit to your terms." He requested and obtained Akbar's permission to send a letter to Pratap, ostensibly to ascertain the fact of his submission, but really with a view to prevent it. He composed the couplets that have become famous in the annals of patriotism.

The hopes of the Hindu rest on the Hindu; yet the Rana forsakes them. But for Pratap, all would be placed on the same level by Akbar; for our chiefs have lost their valour and our females their honour. Akbar is the broker in the market of our race: he has purchased all but the son of Udai (Singh II of Mewar); he is beyond his price. What true Rajput would part with honour for nine days (nauroza); yet how many have bartered it away? Will Chittor come to this market ...? Though Patta (an affectionate name for Pratap Singh) has squandered away wealth (on warfare), yet he has preserved this treasure. Despair has driven man to this market, to witness their dishonour: from such infamy the descendant of Hamir (Hamir Singh) alone has been preserved. The world asks, from where does the concealed aid of Pratap emanate? None but the soul of manliness and his sword ... The broker in the market of men (Akbar) will one day be surpassed; he cannot live forever. Then will our race come to Pratap, for the seed of the Rajput to sow in our desolate lands. To him all look for its preservation, that its purity may again become resplendent.

The now-famous letter led to Pratap reversing his decision and not submitting to the Mughals, as was his initial but reluctant intention. After 1587, Akbar relinquished his obsessive pursuit of Maharana Pratap and took his battles into Punjab and India's Northwest Frontier. Thus for the last ten years of his life, Maharana Pratap ruled in relative peace and eventually freed most of Mewar, including Udaipur and Kumbhalgarh, but not Chittor. Bhagwat Singh Mewar: "Maharana Pratap Singh (was) called the light and life of the Hindu community. There were times when he and his family and children ate bread made of grass." Maharana Pratap became a patron of the Arts. During his reign Padmavat Charita and the poems of Dursa Ahada were written. Palaces at Ubheshwar, Kamal Nath and Chavand bear testimony to his love of architecture. These buildings, built in the dense hilly forest have walls adorned with military-style architecture. But Pratap's broken spirit overpowered him in the twilight of his years. His last moments were an appropriate commentary on his life, when he swore his successor, Crown Prince Amar Singh to eternal conflict against the foes of his country's independence. Maharana Pratap was never able to win back Chittor but he never gave up fighting to win it back.

In January 1597, Rana Pratap Singh I, Mewar's greatest hero, was seriously injured in a hunting accident. He left his body at Chavand, aged 56, on January 29, 1597. He died fighting for his nation, for his people, and most importantly for his honor.

ABOUT ASHOKA

Ashoka, the Mauryan Emperor, looked at the bodies strewn around the smashed city, and at the Daya River that ran red with blood. He was surveying the damage that his army had inflicted on the recalcitrant Kalinga region. About 100,000 civilians were dead, as well as 10,000 of Ashoka's soldiers.
Far from feeling the glorious rush of victory, Ashoka felt sick and saddened. He vowed that never again would he rain down death and destruction on other people.
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He would devote himself to his Buddhist faith and practice ahimsa, or nonviolence.
This story and many others about a great emperor called Ashoka appear in ancient Sanskrit literature, including theAshokavadana,Divyavandana, andMahvamsa. For many years, westerners considered them to be mere legend. They did not connect the ruler Ashoka, grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, to the stone pillars inscribed with edicts that are sprinkled all around the edges of India.
In 1915, however, archaeologists found a pillar inscription that identified the author of those edicts, the well-known Mauryan emperor Piyadasi or Priyadarsi ("Beloved of the Gods"), by his given name.
See Also: What to Know about  Gandhi
That name was Ashoka. The virtuous emperor from the ancient texts, and the law-giver who ordered the installation of pillars inscribed with merciful laws all over the subcontinent - they were the same man.
Ashoka's Early Life:
In 304 BCE, the second emperor of the Mauryan Dynasty,Bindusara, welcomed a son into the world. The boy's mother Dharma was only a commoner, and he had several older half-brothers, so he seemed unlikely to ever rule. This baby was named Ashoka Bindusara Maurya.
Ashoka grew up to be a bold, troublesome and cruel young man.
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He was extremely fond of hunting; according to legend, he even killed a lion using only a wooden stick. His older half-brothers feared Ashoka, and convinced his father to post him as a general to distant frontiers of the Mauryan Empire. Ashoka proved a competent general, likely much to his brothers' dismay, putting down a rebellion in the Punjabicity of Taxshila.
Aware that his brothers viewed him as a rival for the throne, Ashoka went into exile for two years in the neighboring country of Kalinga. While there, he fell in love with a commoner, a fisher-woman named Kaurwaki. The two later married.
Bindusara recalled his son to Maurya after two years to help quell an uprising in Ujjain, the former capital of the Avanti Kingdom. Ashoka succeeded, but was injured in the fighting. Buddhist monks tended to the wounded prince in secret, so that his eldest brother, the heir-apparent Susima, would not learn of Ashoka's injuries. Their patient learned the basic tenets of Buddhism from them. A woman from Vidisha called Devi also attended Ashoka during this period - he fell in love with her and married her.
When Bindusara died in 275 BCE, a two-year-long war for the succession erupted between Ashoka and his half-brothers. The Vedic sources vary on how many of Ashoka's brothers died; one says that he killed them all, while another states that he killed several of them. In either case, Ashoka prevailed and became the third ruler of the Mauryan Empire.
"Chandashok,"or Ashoka the Terrible:
For the first eight years of his reign, Ashoka waged near-constant war. He had inherited a sizable empire, but he expanded it to include most of the Indian subcontinent, as well as the area from the current-day borders of Iranand Afghanistan in the west to Bangladeshand the Burmeseborder in the east. Only the southern tip of India and Sri Lankaremained out of his reach, plus the kingdom of Kalinga on the northeast coast of India.
In 265, Ashoka attacked Kalinga. Although it was the homeland of his second wife, Kaurwaki, and the king of Kalinga had sheltered Ashoka before his ascent to the throne, the Mauryan emperor gathered the largest invasion force in Indian history to that point and launched his assault. Kalinga fought back bravely, but in the end it was defeated and all of its cities sacked.
Ashoka had led the invasion in person, and he went out into the capital city of the Kalingas the morning after his victory to survey the damage. The ruined houses and bloodied corpses sickened the emperor, and he underwent a religious epiphany. Although he had considered himself more or less Buddhist prior to that day, the carnage at Kalinga led Ashoka to devote himself to Buddhism. He vowed to practiceahimsafrom that day forward.
Ashoka the Great:
Had Ashoka simply vowed to himself that he would live according to Buddhist principles, later ages would not remember his name. However, he published his intentions across his empire. Ashoka wrote out a series of edicts, explaining his policies and aspirations for the empire, and urging others to follow his enlightened example.
The Edicts of King Ashokawere carved onto pillars of stone 40 to 50 feet high, and set up all around the edges of the Mauryan Empireas well as in the heart of Ashoka's realm. Dozens of these pillars dot the landscapes of India, Nepal, Pakistanand Afghanistan.
In his edicts, Ashoka vows to care for his people like a father. He promises neighboring people that they need not fear him; he will use only persuasion, not violence, to win people over. Ashoka notes that he has made available shade and fruit trees for the people, as well as medical care for all people and animals.
His concern for living things also appears in a ban on live sacrifices and sport hunting. Ashoka urges his people to follow a vegetarian diet, and bans the practice of burning forests or agricultural wastes that might harbor wild animals. A long list of animals appears on his protected species list, including bulls, wild ducks, squirrels, deer, porcupines, and pigeons.
Ashoka also ruled with incredible accessibility. He notes that "I consider it best to meet with people personally." To that end, he went on frequent tours around his empire. He also advertised that he would stop whatever he was doing if a matter of imperial business needed attention - even if he was having dinner or sleeping, he urged his officials to interrupt him.
In addition, Ashoka was very concerned with judicial matters. His attitude toward convicted criminals was quite merciful. He banned punishments such as torture, the putting out of people's eyes, and the death penalty. He urged pardons for the elderly, those with families to support, etc.
Another principle that Ashoka stressed in his edicts was respect for others. He recommends treating not just parents, teachers and priests with respect, but also friends and even servants.
Finally, although Ashoka urged his people to practice Buddhist values, he fostered an atmosphere of respect for all religions. Within his empire people followed not only the relatively new Buddhist faith, but also Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Greek polytheism and many other belief systems. Ashoka served as an example of tolerance for his subjects, and his religious affairs officers encouraged the practice of any religion.
Ashoka's Legacy:
Ashoka the Great ruled as a just and merciful king from his epiphany in 265 until his death in 232 BCE, at the age of 72. We no longer know the names of most of his wives and children.   However, his twin children by his first wife, a boy called Mahindra and a girl named Sanghamitra, were instrumental in converting Sri Lanka to Buddhism.
After Ashoka's death, the Mauryan Empire continued to exist for 50 years, but it went into a gradual decline. The last Mauryan emperor was Brhadrata, who was assassinated in 185 BCE by one of his generals, Pusyamitra Sunga.
Although his family did not rule for long after he was gone, Ashoka's principles and his examples lived on through the Vedas. He is now known the world over as one of the best rulers ever to have reigned.

TAJ MAHAL AND ITS LOVE STORY

The Taj Mahal is a beautiful, white-marble mausoleum built by Mughul emperor Shah Jahan for his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal. Located on the southern bank of the Yamuna River near Agra, India, the Taj Mahal took 22 years to build, finally being completed in 1653. The Taj Mahal, considered one of the New Wonders  of the World, astounds every visitor not only for its symmetry and structural beauty, but also for its intricate calligraphy, inlaid flowers made of gemstones, and magnificent garden.

The Love Story
It was in 1607, that Shah Jahan, grandson of Akbar the Great, first met his beloved. At the time, he was not yet the fifth emperor of the Mughal Empire.
Sixteen-year-old, Prince Khurram, as he was then called, flitted around the royal bazaar, flirting with the girls from high-ranking families that staffed the booths.
At one of these booths, Prince Khurram met 15-year-old Arjumand Banu Baygam, whose father was soon to be the prime minister and whose aunt was married to Prince Khurram’s father.

Although it was love at first sight, the two were not allowed to marry right away. First, Prince Khurram had to marry Kandahari Begum. (He would later marry a third wife as well.)
On March 27, 1612, Prince Khurram and his beloved, whom he gave the name Mumtaz Mahal (“chosen one of the palace”), were married. Mumtaz Mahal was not only beautiful, she was smart and tender-hearted. The public was enamored with her, in part because Mumtaz Mahal cared for the people, diligently making lists of widows and orphans to make sure they received food and money.
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The couple had 14 children together, but only seven lived past infancy. It was the birth of the 14thchild that was to kill Mumtaz Mahal.
The Death of Mumtaz Mahal
In 1631, three years into Shah Jahan’s reign, there was a rebellion underway, led by Khan Jahan Lodi. Shah Jahan had taken his military out to the Deccan, about 400 miles from Agra, in order to crush the usurper.
As usual, Mumtaz Mahal, who was always by Shah Jahan’s side, accompanied him, despite being heavily pregnant. On June 16, 1631, Mumtaz Mahal, in an elaborately decorated tent, gave birth to a healthy baby girl in the middle of the encampment. At first, all seemed to be well, but it was soon discovered that Mumtaz Mahal was dying.
As soon as Shah Jahan received news of his wife’s condition, he rushed to her side. In the early morning hours of June 17, 1631, Mumtaz Mahal died in his arms.
Reports say that in Shah Jahan’s anguish, he went to his own tent and cried for eight days. Upon emerging, some say he had aged, now sporting white hair and needing glasses.
Mumtaz Mahal was buried right away, according to Islamic tradition, near the encampment at Burbanpur. Her body, however, was not to stay there long.
Plans for the Taj Mahal
In December 1631, when the feud with Khan Jahan Lodi was won, Shah Jahan had the remains of Mumtaz Mahal dug up and brought 435 miles (700 km) to Agra. The return of Mumtaz Mahal was a grand procession, with thousands of soldiers accompanying the body and mourners lining the route.
When the remains of Mumtaz Mahal reached Agra on January 8, 1632, they were temporarily buried on land donated by nobleman Raja Jai Singh, near where the Taj Mahal was to be built.
Shah Jahan, filled with grief, had decided to pour that emotion into an elaborate, exquisite, expensive mausoleum that would rival all those that had come before it. (It was also to be unique, being the first large mausoleum dedicated to a woman.)
Although no one, main architect for the Taj Mahal is known, it is believed that Shah Jahan, who was already passionate about architecture, worked on the plans himself with the input and aid of a number of the best architects of his time.
The plan was that the Taj Mahal (“the crown of the region”) would represent heaven (Jannah) on Earth. No expense was spared to make this happen.
Building the Taj Mahal
At the time, the Mughal Empire was one of the richest in the world and thus Shah Jahan had the means to pay for this huge venture. With the plans made, Shah Jahan wanted the Taj Mahal to be grand, but also, built quickly.
To speed production, an estimated 20,000 workers were brought in and housed nearby in a newly built town for them called Mumtazabad. These workers included both skilled and unskilled craftsmen.
At first, builders worked on the foundation and then on the giant, 624-foot-long plinth (base). On this plinth was to sit the Taj Mahal building as well as the two matching, red sandstone buildings (the mosque and the guest house) that flank the Taj Mahal.
The Taj Mahal building, sitting on a second plinth, was to be an octagonal structure, first constructed of brick and then covered in white marble. Like in most large projects, the builders created a scaffolding to build higher; however, what was unusual was that the scaffolding for this project was built of bricks. No one has yet figured out why.
The white marble was incredibly heavy and quarried in Makrana, 200 miles away. Reportedly, it took 1,000 elephants and an untold number of oxen to drag the marble to the Taj Mahal building site.
For the heavy marble pieces to reach the higher spaces of the Taj Mahal, a giant, 10-mile-long, earthen ramp was built.
The very top of the Taj Mahal is topped with a huge, double-shell dome that reaches to 240 feet and is also covered in white marble.
Four thin, white-marble minarets stand tall at the corners of the second plinth, surrounding the mausoleum.
Calligraphy and Inlaid Flowers
Most pictures of the Taj Mahal show only a large, white, lovely building. What these photos miss is the intricacies that can only be seen up close. It is these details that make the Taj Mahal astoundingly feminine and opulent.
On the mosque, guest house, and the large main gate at the southern end of the Taj Mahal complex appear passages from the Quran(often spelled Koran), the holy book of Islam, written in calligraphy. Shah Jahan hired Amanat Khan, a master calligrapher, to work on the inlaid verses.
Masterfully done, the finished verses from the Quran, inlaid with black marble, look soft and gentle. Although made of stone, the curves make it look almost hand-written. The 22 passages from the Quran were reportedly chosen by Amanat Khan himself. Interestingly, Amanat Khan was the only person who Shah Jahan allowed to sign his work on the Taj Mahal.
Almost more amazing than the calligraphy is the exquisite inlaid flowers found throughout the Taj Mahal complex. In a process known asparchin kari, highly-skilled stone cutters cut intricate floral designs into the white marble and then inlaid precious and semi-precious stones to form interwoven vines and flowers.
The 43 different kinds of precious and semi-precious stones used for these flowers came from around the world, including lapis lazuli from Sri Lanka, jade from China, malachite from Russia, and turquoise from Tibet.
The Garden
As in many religions, Islam holds the image of Paradise as a garden; thus, the garden at the Taj Mahal was an integral part of the plan to make it heaven on Earth.
The Taj Mahal’s garden, which is situated to the south of the mausoleum, has four quadrants, divided by four “rivers” of water (another important Islamic image of Paradise), which gather at a central pool. The gardens and “rivers” were supplied with water from the Yamuna River by a complex, underground water system.
Unfortunately, no records have survived telling us what plants were originally planted in the Taj Mahal’s garden.
The End of Shah Jahan
Shah Jahan stayed in deep mourning for two years but even after that, the death of Mumtaz Mahal still deeply affected him. That is perhaps why the third of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan’s four sons, Aurangzeb, was able to successfully kill off his three brothers and imprison his father.
In 1658, after 30 years as emperor, Shah Jahan was usurped and placed in the luxurious Red Fort in Agra. Not able to leave but with most of his usual luxuries, Shah Jahan spent his last eight years staring out a window, looking at his beloved’s Taj Mahal.
When Shah Jahan died on January 22, 1666, Aurangzeb had his father buried with Mumtaz Mahal in the crypt beneath the Taj Mahal. On the main floor of the Taj Mahal, above the crypt, now sits two cenotaphs (empty, public tombs). The one in the center of the room belongs to Mumtaz Mahal and the one just to the west is for Shah Jahan.
Surrounding the cenotaphs is a delicately-carved, lacy, marble screen. (Originally it had been a gold screen but Shah Jahan had that replaced so that thieves would not be too tempted.)
The Taj Mahal in Ruins
Shah Jahan had enough wealth in his coffers to support the Taj Mahal and its mighty maintenance costs, but over the centuries, the Mughal Empire lost its riches and the Taj Mahal fell into disrepair.
By the 1800s, the British ousted the Mughals and took over India. To many, the Taj Mahal was beautiful and so they cut gemstones from the walls, stole the silver candlesticks and doors, and even tried to sell the white marble overseas.
It was Lord Curzon, the British viceroy of India, who put a stop to all that. Rather than looting the Taj Mahal, Curzon worked to restore it.
The Taj Mahal Now
The Taj Mahal has once again become a magnificent place, with 2.5 million people visiting it each year. Visitors can visit during the daytime, where the color of the white marble seems to change depending on the time of the day. Once a month, visitors have the opportunity to make a short visit during a full moon, to see how the Taj Mahal seems to glow from within in the moonlight.
In 1983, the Taj Mahal was placed on the World Heritage List by UNESCO, but it now suffers from pollutants from nearby factories and from the humidity from the breath of its visitors.

BIOGRAPHY OF SHAH JAHAN

The child who would become Shah Jahan was born on March 4, 1592 in Lahore, now in Pakistan.  His parents were Prince Jahangir and his wife Manmati, a Rajputprincess who was called Bilquis Makani in the Mughal court.
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The baby was Jahangir's third son.   He was named Ala Azad Abul Muzaffar Shahab ud-Din Muhammad Khurram, or Khurram for short.
As a child, Khurram was a particular favorite of his grandfather, Emperor Akbar the Great, who personally oversaw the little prince's education.  Khurram studied warfare, the Koran, poetry, music, and other subjects suitable for a Mughal prince.
In 1605, the 13-year-old prince refused to leave his grandfather's side as Akbar lay dying, despite the potential threat from his father's rivals for the throne.
See Also: Babur, Founder of the  Mughal Empire
Jahangir succeeded to the throne,  after crushing an uprising led by one of his other sons, Khurram's half-brother.  The incident brought Jahangir and Khurram closer; in 1607, the emperor awarded his third son the fiefdom of Hissar-Feroza, which court observers took to mean that 15-year-old Khurram was now the heir apparent.
Also in 1607, Prince Khurram was engaged to marry Arjumand Banu Begum, the 14-year-old daughter of a Persian nobleman.  Their wedding did not take place until five years later, and Khurram would marry two other women in the meantime, but Arjumand was his true love.
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She later became known as Mumtaz Mahal - "The Chosen One of the Palace."  Khurram dutifully sired a son by each of his other wives, and then neglected them almost entirely.  He and Mumtaz Mahal had 14 children, seven of whom survived to adulthood.
When descendents of the Lodi Empire rose up on the Deccan  Plateauin 1617, Emperor Jahangir sent Prince Khurram to deal with the problem.  The prince soon put down the rebellion, so his father granted him the name Shah Jahan, meaning "Glory of the World."  Their close relationship broke down, however, over court intrigues by Jahangir's Afghan wife, Nur Jahan, who wanted Shah Jahan's youngest brother to be Jahangir's heir.
In 1622, with relations at their zenith, Shah Jahan went to war against his father.  Jahangir's army defeated Shah Jahan's after a four year fight; the prince surrendered unconditionally.  When Jahangir died just one year later, in 1627, Shah Jahan became the Emperor of Mughal India.
Emperor Shah Jahan:
As soon as he took the throne, Shah Jahan ordered his stepmother Nur Jahan imprisoned and his half-brothers executed, in order to secure his seat.  Shah Jahan faced challenges and uprisings all around the edges of his empire, as well.  He proved equal to the challenges from Sikhsand Rajputs in the north and west, and from the Portuguese in Bengal.  However, the death of his beloved Mumtaz Mahal in 1631 nearly shattered the emperor.
Mumtaz died at the age of thirty-eight after giving birth to her 14th child, a girl named Gauhara Begum.  At the time of her death, Mumtaz was in the Deccan with Shah Jahan on a military campaign, despite her condition.  The distraught emperor reportedly went into seclusion for an entire year, and was only coaxed out of mourning by his and Mumtaz's eldest daughter, Jahanara Begum.  Legend says that when he emerged, the forty-year-old emperor's hair had turned white.  He was determined to build his empress "the most magnificent tomb the world had ever known."
It took the next twenty years of his reign, but Shah Jahan planned, designed, and oversaw the construction of the Taj Mahal, the world's most famous and beautiful mausoleum.  Made of white marble inlaid with jasper and agates, the Taj is decorated with Koranic verses in lovely calligraphy.  The building occupied 20,000 workers over the course of two decades, including craftsmen from far-off Baghdad and Bukhara, and cost 32 million rupees.
In the meantime, Shah Jahan began to rely increasingly on his son Aurangzeb, who proved an effective military leader and an Islamic fundamentalist from a young age.  In 1636, Shah Jahan appointed him viceroy of the troublesome Deccan; Aurangzeb was just 18.  Two years later, Shah Jahan and his sons took the city of Kandahar, now in Afghanistan, from the Safavid Empire.  This sparked on-going strife with the Persians, who recaptured the city in 1649.
Shah Jahan fell ill in 1658, and appointed his and Mumtaz Mahal's eldest son Dara Shikoh as his regent.  Dara's three younger brothers immediately rose up against him and marched on the capital at Agra.  Aurangzeb defeated Dara and his other brothers, and took the throne.  Shah Jahan then recovered from his illness, but Aurangzeb declared him unfit to rule and had him locked up in the Agra Fort for the rest of his life. Shah Jahan spent his last eight years gazing out the window at the Taj Mahal, attended by his daughter Jahanara Begum.
On January 22, 1666, Shah Jahan died at the age of 74.  He was interred in the Taj Mahal, beside his beloved Mumtaz Mahal.

BIOGRAPHY OF AURANGZEB

Aurangzeb was born on November 4, 1618, the third son of Prince Khurram (who would become Emperor Shah Jahan) and the Persian princess Arjumand Bano Begam. His mother is more commonly known as Mumtaz Mahal, "Beloved Jewel of the Palace." She later inspired Shah Jahan to build the Taj Mahal.
During Aurangzeb's childhood, however, Mughal politics made life difficult for the family. Succession did not necessarily fall to the eldest son; instead, the sons built armies and competed militarily for the throne.

Prince Khurram was the favorite to become the next emperor, and his father bestowed the title Shah Jahan Bahadur or "Brave King of the World" on the young man.
In 1622, however, when Aurangzeb was four years old, Prince Khurram learned that his step-mother was supporting a younger brother's claim to the throne. The prince revolted against his father, but was defeated after four years. Aurangzeb and a brother were sent to their grandfather's court as hostages.
When Shah Jahan's father died in 1627, the rebel prince became Emperor of the Mughal Empire.

The nine-year-old Aurangzeb was reunited with his parents at Agra in 1628.
The young Aurangzeb studied statecraft and military tactics, the Quranand languages, in preparation for his future role. Shah Jahan, however, favored his first son Dara Shikoh, and believed that he had the potential to become the next Mughal emperor.
Aurangzeb, Military Leader:
The 15-year-old Aurangzeb proved his courage in 1633. All of Shah Jahan's court was arrayed in a pavilion, watching an elephant fight, when one of the elephants ran out of control. As it thundered towards the royal family, everyone scattered - except Aurangzeb, who ran forward and headed off the furious pachyderm.
This act of near-suicidal bravery raised Aurangzeb's status in the family. The following year, the teenager got command of an army of 10,000 cavalry and 4,000 infantry; he soon was dispatched to put down the Bundela rebellion. When he was 18, the young prince was appointed viceroy of the Deccan region, south of the Mughal heartland.
When Aurangzeb's sister died in a fire in 1644, he took three weeks to return home to Agra rather than rushing back immediately. Shah Jahan was so angry about his tardiness that he stripped Aurangzeb of the Viceroyalty of Deccan.
Relations between the two deteriorated the following year, and Aurangzeb was banished from court. He bitterly accused the emperor of favoring Dara Shikoh.
Shah Jahan needed all of his sons in order to run his huge empire, however, so in 1646, he appointed Aurangzeb Governor of Gujarat. The following year, the 28-year-old Aurangzeb also took up the governorships of Balkh ( Afghanistan) and Badakhshan ( Tajikistan) on the empire's vulnerable northern flank.
Although Aurangzeb had a lot of success in extending Mughal rule north and westward, in 1652, he failed to take the city of Kandahar (Afghanistan) from the Safavids. His father again recalled him to the capital. Aurangzeb would not languish in Agra for long, though - that same year, he was sent south to govern the Deccan once more.
Aurangzeb Fights for the Throne:
In late 1657, Shah Jahan became ill. His beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal, had died in 1631, and Shah Jahan never really got over her loss. As his condition worsened, his four sons by Mumtaz began to fight for the Peacock Throne.
Shah Jahan favored Dara, the eldest son, but many Muslims considered him too worldly and irreligious. Shuja, the second son, was a complete hedonist, who used his position as Governor of Bengalas a platform for acquiring beautiful women and wine. Aurangzeb, a much more committed Muslim than either of the elder brothers, saw his chance to rally the faithful behind his own banner.
Aurangzeb craftily recruited his younger brother Murad, convincing him that together they could remove Dara and Shuja, and place Murad on the throne. Aurangzeb disavowed any plans to rule himself, claiming that his only ambition was to make the hajjto Mecca.
Later in 1658, as the combined armies of Murad and Aurangzeb moved north toward the capital, Shah Jahan recovered his health. Dara, who had crowned himself regent, stepped aside. The three younger brothers refused to believe that Shah Jahan was well, though, and converged on Agra, where they defeated Dara's army.
Dara fled north, but was betrayed by a Baluchi chieftain and brought back to Agra in June of 1659. Aurangzeb had him executed for apostasy from Islam, and presented the head to their father.
Shuja also fled to Arakan ( Burma), and was executed there. Meanwhile, Aurangzeb had his former ally Murad executed on trumped-up murder charges in 1661. In addition to disposing of all of his rival brothers, the new Mughal Emperor placed his father under house arrest in Agra  Fort. Shah Jahan lived there for eight years, until 1666. He spent most of his time in bed, gazing out the window at the Taj Mahal.
The Reign of Aurangzeb:
Aurangzeb's 48-year reign is often cited as a "Golden Age" of the Mughal Empire, but it was rife with trouble and rebellions. Although Mughal rulers from Akbar the Greatthrough Shah Jahan practiced a remarkable degree of religious tolerance and were great patrons of the arts, Aurangzeb reversed both of these policies. He practiced a much more orthodox, even fundamentalist version of Islam, going so far as to outlaw music and other performances in 1668. Both Muslims and Hinduswere forbidden to sing, play musical instruments or to dance - a serious damper on the traditions of both faiths in India.
Aurangzeb also ordered the destruction of Hindu temples, although the exact number is not known. Estimates range from under 100 to tens of thousands. In addition, he ordered the enslavement of Christian missionaries.
Aurangzeb expanded Mughal rule both north and south, but his constant military campaigns and religious intolerance rankled many of his subjects. He did not hesitate to torture and kill prisoners of war, political prisoners, and anyone he considered un-Islamic. To make matters worse, the empire became over-extended, and Aurangzeb imposed ever higher taxes in order to pay for his wars.
The Mughal army was never able to completely quash Hindu resistance in the Deccan, and the Sikhsof the northern Punjabrose up against Aurangzeb repeatedly throughout his reign. Perhaps most worryingly for the Mughal emperor, he relied heavily on Rajput warriors, who by this time formed the backbone of his southern army, and were faithful Hindus. Although they were displeased with his policies, they did not abandon Aurangzeb during his lifetime, but they revolted against his son as soon as the emperor died.
Perhaps the most disastrous revolt of all was the PashtunRebellion of 1672-74. The founder of the Mughal  Dynasty, Babur, came from Afghanistan to conquer India, and the family had always relied upon the fierce Pashtun tribesmen of Afghanistan and what is now Pakistanto secure the northern borderlands. Charges that a Mughal governor was molesting tribal women sparked a revolt among the Pashtuns, which led to a complete break-down of control over the northern tier of the empire and its critical trade routes.
Death and Legacy:
On February 20, 1707, the 88-year-old Aurangzeb died in central India. He left an empire stretched to the breaking point and riddled with rebellions. Under his son, Bahadur Shah I, the Mughal Dynasty began its long, slow decline into oblivion, which finally ended when the British sent the last emperor into exile in 1858, and established the British Rajin India.
Emperor Aurangzeb is considered to be the last of the "Great Mughals." However, his ruthlessness, treachery and intolerance surely contributed to the weakening of the once-great empire.
Perhaps Aurangzeb's early experiences of being held hostage by his grandfather, and being constantly overlooked by his father warped the young prince's personality. Certainly, the lack of a specified line of succession cannot have made family life particularly easy. The brothers must have grown up knowing that one day they would have to fight one another for power.
In any case, Aurangzeb was a fearless man who knew what he had to do in order to survive. Unfortunately, his choices left the Mughal Empire itself far less able to fend off foreign imperialism in the end.

BIOGRAPHY OF ALAUDDIN KHILJI

Alauddin Khilji, earlier known as Juna Khan Khilji, was one of the most powerful Sultan of Delhi Sultanates. He belonged to the Khilji Dynasty. He captured the throne in 1296 A.D. He became famous as an organizer of real purposeful kingdom.
Early life and accession:Alauddin Khilji was the nephew of Sultan Jalal-ud-din Khilji. His uncle was very affectionate to him. During the reign of Sultan Jalal-ud-din Khilji, he was appointed as appointed governor of Kara (in Allahabad district). He was also to lead an expedition into Malwa.
But, Alauddin exceeded his authority and proceeded towards the Deccan. He plundered Berar and Khandesh and captured Ellichpur. He collected immense booty and returned to Kara. After some time, he killed his uncle and became the next Sultan of Delhi.
Early Mongol attacks:Ala-ud-din had to face Mongol attack from the time he assumed the power of the Sultanate. From the year 1296 A.D. to 1308 A.D. every year Mongals invaded Delhi. The Mongols attacked Delhi repeatedly. The existence of Sultan Shahi became endangered. But Alauddin checked all the attacks with courage and determination. At the same time, he made the security of the northwest frontier strong and firm.
Expansion of the kingdom:From the time of Alauddin Khilji, Muslim imperialism in India began. Soon after his establishment on the throne he embarked upon a career of conquests. He carried out these expeditions in Northern India as well as Southern India. His military expedition to North India ranged from 1297 A.D. to 1305 A.D. He invaded South India from 1306 A.D. to 1312 A.D. The nature and purpose of his invasions to North and South India were different. He conquered the North Indian kingdoms and took them into the direct fold of Sultan Shahi rule. But by conquering South Indian kingdoms, he plundered rich wealth. He also compelled the ruler of conquered kingdoms to pay yearly tax. Alauddin was happy with that.
Conquests of North India:The Sultan had motive of political control as well as economic purpose behind the invasion of Northern India. He first sent his army to Gujarat. Then his army attacked Ranthambhor and captured it. Rana Hamirdeva died in the battle. Then Ala-ud-din proceeded against Mewar (1303 A.D.). After long battle Chittor fort came under his control. Then he captured Malab, Marwar, Jaloree, Chanderi, etc.
Conquests of South India:Before assuming throne Alaundin Khilji once invaded Devagiri. According to the pact the king of Devagiri was to pay money as tax. But he failed to pay. Alauddi­n attacked Devagiri again. After that he invaded Kakatiya kingdom (1308 A.D.), Hoisal kingdom (1310 A.D.) and Pandya kingdom (1311 A.D.) of Telengana one after another. He invaded Devagiri for lie third time and compelled them to accept his supremacy and pay tax regularly.
Administration:Alauddin took steps to make administrationrigid and sound along with conquering of kingdom. He banned the meddling of Ulemas and other religious leaders in the administration. He declared that the Sultan’s will is the law. To curb the audacious relatives and aristocrats he took few very important steps. For example:
1.He banned drinking of alcohol in open in his kingdom.
2.He made it compulsory to take Sultan’s permission before establishing relationship amongst aristocrats.
3.He ordered the confiscation of endowments and free grants of land made by the state.
4.To help him in administration he appointed few very agile and competent staffs. He invested powers to collect taxes, maintain law and order and to maintain army, to officers known as Iktadar or Makti, in remote areas. The lands thus estimated were known as `Ikta’.
5.To check corruption in the army he introduced dag (mark a horse) and chehra (the physical descriptions of army men).
Economic Reforms:Ala-ud-din’s aim of revenue system was to fund the royal treasury and to save poor villagers from the hands of middle earners. Probably he was the first king to make survey of land to determine land revenue. Khut, Mukaddam, Chowdhury, etc. were made powerless and taxes began to be collected directly from the subjects. Other than land revenue, he introduced tax for cattle grazing, taxes for buildings, etc. The rate of revenue was 50% of the crops produced.
Market control policy:The most extraordinary economic reform of Alauddin was his market control or price control policy. Alauddin not only fixed prices, but also ensured their regular supply by prohibiting thin hoarding. Starting from clothing, food grains to cattle even slaves, he imposed price control upon everything. For that he established few markets in and around Delhi, as for  food grain, clothing, medicine, fruits, sugar etc. Prices of all the items were fixed by the administration. Any businessman, if found taking higher prices or cheating the buyer by giving material in less weight had been dealt with firmly.
Extent of his empire: The historic account of wars and conquests indicates the limits of the Alauddin’s empire. On the north-western side, both Punjab and Sindh were under his control and the Indus formed the boundary of his vast empire. Most of the regions over Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Malwa, and Rajputana were under his authority. In the south, the state of Narbada were held by tributary vassal chiefs.
The conquests of Alauddin Khilji were very successful and he called himself a second Alexander.
Last days:Last life of Alauddin was very painful and tragic. Taking the opportunity of his inability his commander Malik Kafurassumed the entire power. He became hopeless and sick and died in the year 1316 A.D.
Estimate of Alauddin Khilji:Most historians praised Alauddin as great ruler and reformer. Still his work lacked permanence, as it was based on naked force and not on the goodwill of the people.
End of Khilji Rule:Within four years of Alauddin’s death, the rule of the Khiljis came to an end. Ala-ud-din’s younger son Shahabuddin was dethroned by his third son Mubarak Shah, who ruled from 1316 to 1320 A.D. He again was killed by a conspiracy by Nasir-ud-din (1320); finally he was dethroned and killed in a battle by one Ghazi Malik, the gove­rnor of Punjab.

IMPORTANT BATTLES IN INDIA

Important Battles and Wars in India
The highlights of some of the important battles and wars in India have been given below.
Battle of Tarain
The first battle of Tarainwas fought near Thaneswar between Prithviraj Chauhanand Mohammad Ghori in 1191. The Chauhan dynasty defeated Mohammad Ghori in this battle.
Second Battle of Tarrain
The second battle of Tarainwas fought again between Prithviraj Chouhan and Mohammad Ghori in 1192. But this time, Pritviraj Chauhan was defeated by the army of  Mohammad Ghori.
The second battle of Tarain has huge significance in the history of Indian war and battles. Though Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated in the battle, but he is still remembered by Indians as a great warrior.
First Battle of Panipat
The First Battle of Panipatwas fought between Mughal emperor Baburand Army of Afghan king Ibrahim Lodiat Panipat in 1526.  In this battle, the army of Ibrahmi Lodi was defeated by the forces of Babur.
Battle of Chausal
The Battle of Chausal was fought between Sher Shah Suriand Humayunon 7th June, 1539. King Sher Shah Suri had defeated the army of Mughal Emperor Humayun. However, Mughal Emperor Humayun had managed to escape from the battle.
Battle of Kanauj
The Battle of Kanauj was fought between Sher Shah and Humayun on 17th May, 1540. In this battle Sher Shah Suri defeated the forces of Mughal Emperor Humayun and occupied the Agra City.
Battle of Delhi (1556)
The Battle of Delhi was fought between Hem Chandra Vikramaditya (HEMU) and Akbar’s Forces on 7th October, 1556 in Delhi. In this battle, Vikramaditya defeated the Akbar’s forces.
Second Battle of Panipat
The second Battle of Panipatwas fought between Mughal emperor Akbar and Hem Chandra Vikramaditya at Panipat on 5th November, 1556. But this time Mughal Emperor Akbardefeated the forces of Hem Chandra Vikramaditya.
Battle of Haldighati
The Battle of Haldighati was fought between Mughal emperor Akbar and Rana of Mewar Pratap in the year 1576 and Akbar won the battle.
First Carnatic War
The first Carnatic warwas fought between the British East India Company and French, then French had occupied Madras from the year 1745 to 1748.
Battle of Plassey
The Battle of Plasseywas fought between British army & Bengal Nawab Siraz-ud-daula in the year of 1757. In this battle, British army  had defeated Siraz-ud-daula. Then Mir Jafar had been declared Nawab of Bengal.
Battle of Buxar
The Battle of Buxarwas fought between British army & combined army of nawab of Awadh Shuja-ud-daulah, nawab of Bengal Mir Qasim and Mughal emperor Shah Alam iiin 1764.

BIOGRAPHY OF IBRAHIM LODHI (DELHI SULTAN)

Ibrahim Lodi
On the death of Sikandar Lodi, Ibrahim Lodi, his son, was elevated to the throne without any opposition. Dual monarchy which Sikandar Lodihad ended was revived under Ibrahim Lodi who installed his brother Jalal Khan as the independent ruler of Jaunpur. But soon on the advice of some wiser Pairs deputed an agent to persuade Jalal Khan to come to Delhi, but Jalal Khan refused to come. Ibrahim Lodi sent secret instructions to chief nobles and governors not to recognize Jalal Khan’s authority. In the circumstances, Jalal Khan was compelled to leave Jaunpur and return to his old fief of Kalpi, but soon by winning over the important amir Azam Humayun Sarwani to his side, he succeeded in recovering Awadh. But when Ibrahim Lodi marched to oppose Azam Humayun he came over to the side of the Sultan leaving the side of Jalal. Jalal in desperation proceeded towards Agra when Ibrahim Lodi’s general Malik Adam persuaded him to accept permanent assignment of the fief of Kalpi and to surrender his claim to sovereignty. But the arrangement was not ultimately agreed to by Ibrahim Lodi and Jalal fled to Gwalior, thence to Malwa. Being unwelcome there, he fled to the Gonds who betrayed him to the Sultan. Ibrahim sent him to Hansi where his other brothers were imprisoned, but was killed on his way.
Jalal Khan was given temporary asylum at Gwalior which was the pretext for completing by Ibrahim his father’s project of conquering this important Rajput state. Ibrahim Lodi sent an army comprising 30,000 horses, 3000 elephants under the leadership of Azam Humayun Sarwani, governor of Kara to lay siege of the fortress. In the meantime Raja Man who had defied Sikandar died. His son Vikramjit, unable to withstand the pressure of the Sultan’s forces surrendered at last. This was indeed an outstanding military achievement on the part of Ibrahim Lodi. But his attempt against Rana Sanga of Mewar failed totally.
Ibrahim Lodi was a good learner. Jalal Khan’s rebellion was a lesson to Ibrahim Lodi. He now decided to suppress the Afghan nobility with a heavy hand. While his father Sikandar was circumspect in his asserting royal authority on the Afghan followers, Ibrahim insisted on strict observance of court ceremonial and decorum by the Afghan nobility brushing off their minds all thoughts of equality and racial affinity with the Sultan. While the transformation might have been slowly and gradually effected, Ibrahim wanted to affect it all on a sudden. Without realizing that his success as ruler depended much on the support of his nobles, Ibrahim decided to destroy the very same men whose help he needed most. Even Azam Humayun Sarwar who contributed to Sultan’s victory over Gwalior was recalled from Gwalior and put in chains. Mian Bhuwah, who rendered meritorious service as wazir since the time of Sikandar was imprisoned.
The tyrannical conduct of the Sultan Ibrahim Lodi led to revolt of Azam Humayun Sarwar’s son Islam Khan at Kara. He was supported by two Lodi chiefs. Ibrahim Lodi sent an army against the insurgents but it was defeated. The insurgents who had raised an army 40,000 strong demanded Azam Humayun Sarwar’s release but Ibrahim refused to do so despite intercession of a Muslim saint. Ibrahim ordered Darya Khan Lohani, governor of Bihar, Nasir Khan Lohani, of Ghazipur, and Shaikh Muhammad Farmuli to join the royal army with their forces and the battle that followed 10,000 Afghans fell and the insurgents were defeated and Islam Khan was killed This victory made Ibrahim more ruthless instead of teaching him the lesson of the need of conciliation of the nobles. Mian Bhuwah was put to death and Azam Humayun Sarwani who died in captivity is supposed to have been killed under orders of the Sultan. Mian Hussian Farmuli was done to death at Chanderi. All this created a feeling of insecurity and consternation among the nobles who now contemplated a desperatecourse for their safety. Important Lodi and Farmuli amirs as well as Darya Khan Lohani whom Ibrahim decided to degrade next, organized themselves, Darya Khan cast off his allegiance to Ibrahim Lodi. But on his sudden death his son Bahar Khan took the leadership of the disaffected nobles. He assumed the title of Shah Muhammad and occupied the country from Bihar to Sambhal and after about two years had khutab read in his own name. He was joined by Nasir Khan Lohani, governor of Ghazipur, who was erstwhile supporter of Ibrahim, Fath Khan another son of Azam Humayun Sarwani and Sher Shah.
While Ibrahim Lodi was busy in fighting the rebellious amirs of the eastern provinces, Daulat Khan Lodi, governor of Punjab opened negotiations with Babur. As he was not able to organize revolt as that of the Afghan nobles of Bihar he preferred to turn to Babur for help sent his son to Kabul for the purpose. Almost at the same time Ibrahim Lodi’s uncle Alam Khan who had biding his time in Gujarat was requested by the disaffected amirs to replace Ibrahim Lodi. He also arrived at Kabul to seek Babur’s help. Babur who was eager to annex Punjab seized the opportunity and led an expedition in 1524 to Lahore where he defeated Ibrahim Lodi’s army under Bahar Khan Lodi. Daulat Khan who had fled towards Multan from where he came to Dipalpur to meet Babur. Babur instead of reinstating Daulat Khan appointed his own officials at Lahore assigning only a few small districts to the latter. Daulat Khan found that he had invited not a friend but a master. This infuriated him and on Babur’s retirement to Kabul joined Alam Khan in an attempt top capture Delhi on condition that Babur would be allowed to retain Punjab in full sovereignty. In 1525 Alam Khan and Daulat Khan’s combined forces attacked Delhi but were easily defeated by Ibrahim Lodi. Baburrealizing that neither Alam Khan nor Daulat Khan could be relied on set out for a final and decisive invasion of India. The armies of Babur and Ibrahim Lodi clashed with each other at Panipat on April 20, 1526, and Ibrahim despite overwhelming superiority in numbers was defeated and slain. This historic victory in the battle of Panipatwas due to Babur’s superior fighting tactics and skillful deployment of trained cavalry and a massive store of artillery.
Estimate:Endowed with courage and bravery, Sultan Ibrahim Lodi had qualities of an excellent warrior, but he was rash and impolitic in his decisions and actions. He was both honest and diligent and applied himself to public business with zest. His attempt at royal absolutism was premature and his policy of sheer repression unaccompanied by measures to strengthen the administration and increase the military resources was sure to prove a failure. He lacked foresight and he alienated the nobles at a time when external invasion loomed large in the north-west.
Ibrahim’s private life was beyond reproach and he was kindly towards his subjects and saints. He took steps for the improvement of agriculture and both the state and the nobles received their share in produce of the soil. People lived a happy life due to plenty and cheap prices. He died on April 21, 1526.

ABOUT AKBAR THE GREAT (MOGHUL EMPEROR)

Akbar (1556-1605 A.D.)
Akbar, also known as Akbar the Great, ascended the throne of Mughal Empire at the young age of 14 in 1556.
After the sudden death of his father, Humayun, the new young emperor (Akbar) succeeded to a difficult position. The Afghans had still enough military power and they were regrouping their forces under the Afghan leader Ali Adil Shah and his Hindu General Hemu. Under the leadership of Hemu the Afghan forces captured Delhi and Agra. After the capture of Delhi Hemu assumed the title of Vikramjit and declared himelf emperor.
At that time Akbar and his wazir and guardian Bairam Khan, a loyal friend of Humayun, was in the Punjab. On hearing the catastrophic news of the fall of Delhi they proceeded towards Delhi. Hemu also marched towards the Punjab. The two armies met at the historical plains of Panipat on November 5, 1556. Though Hemu fought valiantly, he was defeated and put to death. Thus the Second Battle of Panipat (1556 A.D.) again decided the fate of India in favour of the Mughal Empire and Akbar.  It also ended the Mughal-Afghan contest for supremacy.
Fall of Bairam Khan
Bairam Khanremained at the helm of affairs of the state for about four years. During his regency Gwalior, Ajmer and Jaunpur were captured. Akbar was growing up and he wanted to rule the realm himself. Bairam Khan was dismissed and was asked to go to Mecca. On his way to Mecca he was assassinated by an Afghan soldier who bore personal grudge against him.
After the fall of Bairam Khan for a time Akbar’s foster mother Maham Anga and some of her close relatives wielded the power. But in 1564, at the age of twenty, Akbar took full control of the empire in his own hands.
Akbar’s Conquest
Akbar was an imperialist. After the fall of Bairam Akbar had to face several rebellions. These rebellions created an opinion in Akbar’s mind that existence of other states, big or small, were dangerous for the paramount power. Some writers like Abut Fazal,however, said that Akbar had wanted to extend the empire to provide good government to the peoples living in other states. In the initial years of his reign, Akbar abolished Pilgrim’s Tax in 1563 and Jiziya in 1564. In spite of these internal reforms Akbar found time to make preparation for his conquests. His first victim was Gondwana (now northern part of the Central Province). Rani Durgavati, who was regent for her young son, fought valiantly against the Mughal General. But she could not stem the onslaught of the vast Mughal army. After a brave resistance the queen committed suicide.
Rajputs policy of Akbar
After the conquest of Gondwana Akbar turned his attention to Rajputana. Akbar felt that for the safety of the Mughal Empire and for expansion towards western and southern India, Rajputana was strategically important. He also knew that if he could receive help of the brave Rajputs warriors, his empire would be secure and his dependence on the fortune seekers from Afghanistan and Central Asia would be reduced. So he tried to earn the friendship of the Rajputs and adopted three policies towards Rajputs princes. With some important royal families he effected matrimonial alliance. He gave the princes of these Rajputs families high posts both in civil and military departments. Some other Rajputs princes offered submission but did not send their daughters to the Mughal harem. Akbar treated them leniently and allowed them to retain their kingdoms as his vassals. But some Rajput Kings like Rana Udai Singhof Mewar refused to suffer the ignominy of the Mughal rule. Akbar tried to crush them. Akbar’s Rajputs policy was a part of his grand plan of establishing a vast empire.
Though most of the Rajputs states recognized Akbar as their emperor, Mewar did not. So Akbar invaded Mewar and besieged Chittor in 1567. Rana Udai Singh fled from Chittor. But the Rajputs of the Chittor fort offered brave resistance under the leadership of Jaimal and Putta. After a heroic resistance for four months Akbar was able to conquer the fort. The Rajputs fought to the last and almost all of them died. After the fall of Chittor the rulers of Bikaner and Jaisalmer voluntarily offered their submission. The ruler of Ranthambhor also surrendered after a little resistance.
But even after that Mewar under Rana Pratap Singh, the valiant son of Udai Singh continued to defy the Mughals. Against him Akbar sent a vast army under Asaf Khan and Man Singh. On 18th June, 1576, Pratap fought a valiant battle against the Mughals in the Battle of Haldighati. But he was defeated and had to leave the battle field. Even after this Rana Pratap continued his heroic resistance. Before his death in 1597 he was able to restore most of Mewar except Chittor.
Other Conquests
After Mewar Akbar turned his eyes to the rich province of Gujarat. The ports of Gujarat were important as centers of trade with West Asia and Europe. In 1572 Akbar invaded Gujarat and conquered Ahmedabad. Next year he again came to Gujarat, conquered the rich port Surat and annexed the province. Akbar’s empire now extended to the sea and he could profit by the rich commerce passing through Surat and other western ports.
After the fall of Gujarat, Akbar turned his attention to Bengal and Bihar. Daud Khan, the ruler of Bengal and Bihar had declared independence. Akbar sent various expeditions between 1574 to 1576 to these provinces. Daud Khan was finally defeated and killed in 1576 and his kingdom was annexed. But the powerful local chiefs of east and south-east Bengal known as Baro Bhuiyans continued to resist for some time.
Then Akbar turned his attention to north-western India which had become a trouble-spot and refuge for rebels. In 1581 Akbar defeated his younger brother Hakim who ruled as an independent king in Kabul. Akbar annexed Kabul after the death of Hakim in 1585. He completed the conquest of Kashmir, Sind and Kandahar between 1586 to 1595 A.D. By this time, Akbar had become the master of northern and central India.
Having thus completed the conquest of northern India Akbar sought to conquer southern India. He stormed Ahmadnagar in 1600 and captured Asirgarh in Khandesh in 1601 A.D. That was his last conquest. At his death four years later Akbar’s empire extended from Kabul in the west to Bengal in the east and from the foot of the Himalayas in the north to the river Narmada in the south.
Akbar’s administration
The principle and systems of Mughal administration was mainly the product of the genius of Akbar. His administrative system requires careful study as it continued to be the basis of the administrative system up to the time of the British rule.
The Mughal Emperors were despotic rulers in whose hands all civil and military powers of the state were concentrated. The emperor was the supreme commander of the imperial forces and fountain-head of justice; his word was law. But as it was not possible for any person to bear the whole burden, the emperor took advice and active assistance from his ministers. Of the ministers, four were important. They were: (i) Vakil or Prime minister, (ii) Wazir or Diwan who was the finance minister, (iii) Mir Bhaksi who was in charge of the military department and (iv) Mirsaman or the store-keeper.
Provincial administration
For the convenience of provincial administration Akbar divided his empire in 15 provinces. There were some autonomous feudatory areas as well. Subedars were in charge of the provincial administration. They maintained law and order of the area under their command and carried out the orders of the emperor.
For the collection of revenue there was a Diwan. Akbar divided distinctly the powers of Subedar and Diwan. Thus the power of the provinces could not be concentrated in the hands of any single person.
The subas were again subdivided into sarkars or districts. Each sarkar was under a Faujdar. He was responsible for administration of the sarkar. The sarkars were again subdivided into parganas.
Land Revenue System
Like Sher Shah, Akbar also showed interest in the land revenue system. During the early years of his reign Akbar made several revenue experiments. At last Todarmal’s system of revenue was adopted.
Three salient features of the Mughal land-revenue system was introduced by Akbar. They were:
*.Measurement of land,
*.Classification of land and
*.Fixation of rate.
Todarmal made a thorough survey of land.
There were different systems of collection of land revenue.
The main source of the Mughal treasury was the land-revenue. But customs duties, mint, presents or peshkash, imposition of fines and war-booties etc. also fetched considerable sum.
Many historians have praised the revenue system of Akbar. The state became sure about its income. On the other hand, the peasants were saved from the oppression of the tax-collectors.
Mansabdari system. Its advantages and disadvantages:
Akbar knew that the expansion and the maintenance of the empire could be best done by organizing the nobility as well as the army. Akbar felt that both these purposes could be served by the mansabdari system. Under this system every office was assigned a rank (mansab). He created 33 ranks ranging from the command of 10 to that of 7,000 horsemen.
The mansabdars could be assigned civil, military or judicial functions. The recruitment, promotion and demotion of the mansabdars all depended upon the sweet will of the emperor. The lesser mansabdars were paid in cash while the mansabdars belonging to higher category were granted jagirs. To check malpractices the horses under the mansabdars were branded. Mansabdari system was not hereditary like jagirdari system. The mansabdars were often transferred by the emperor.
The jagirdari system encourages conspiracies and revolts. The mansabdari system checked the process to a great extent. As lowering or upgrading of ranks depended on the efficiency and will of the emperor the mansabdars generally tried to prove their efficiency.
But this system had some defects too. As the soldiers got their salary from the mansabdars, they owed primary allegiance to the mansabdars and not to the emperor. Secondly, as the mansabdari system was not hereditary, often it induced the mansabdars to be extravagant. This luxurious life style of the props of the empire later assisted in bringing its downfall.
Akbar’s religious policy
Akbar was very tolerant in his religious views. In his childhood he was impressed by the liberal religious ideas of his teacher, Abdul Latif and Sufism. In cherishing liberal views towards the Hindus and Rajputs these impressions had a role.
Akbar’s religious views went through a process of slow evolution. This evolution of religious ideas of Akbar can be divided into three phases. During the first phase which lasted till 1574 he was an orthodox Sunni Muslim.
The period between 1574 to 1582 belonged to the second phase of his religious life. In 1575, Akbar built a hall called Ibadat Khana or the Hall of Prayer at his new capital Fatehpur Sikri. Selected men representing various schools of religious ideas—Muslim, Hindu, Parsi, Jain, Christian etc.—used to take part in religious debates.
Din-i-Ilahi
Having made a comparative study of many religions, Akbar came to the conclusion that all religions are basically one and the same and therefore, there should be no and hatred among their followers. He picked up good points from many religions to evolve a religion of his own known as the Din-i-Ilahi. Abul Fazal and Badauni called the new path proclaimed by Akbar as tauhid-i-Ilahi which literally means ‘Divine Monotheism’.
The following principles of Din-i-Ilahi are worth mentioning.
1.God is one and the Emperor is His representative on earth.
2.The believers in this faith were required to offer prostration to the Emperor.
3.The members of this new faith were to abstain from taking meat and drinks. They were expected to lead a virtuous life.
4.There were no sacred books or scriptures, no priestly class, no place of worship or rituals and ceremonies except the initiation in the Din-i-Ilahi order.
By practicing this faith Akbar tried to emphasize the concept of religious tolerance. According to Abul Fazal the followers of Din-­i-Ilahi were prepared to offer their property, society, life and religion for the Emperor. The main aim of Akbar behind preaching this religion was to strengthen the integrity of the empire. He knew that for this purpose the administrative unity alone was not sufficient. It required religious and cultural unity as well.
Akbar’s cultural life and his Court:
Perhaps it is wrong to assume that Akbar was an illiterate person as many historians say. He was a man of refined taste and had profound knowledge in various fields of art and architecture. He had a very good library. Many learned and talented persons were assembled in his court and so it became a centre of learning.
Among the luminaries who attended his court, the names of the following persons are worth mentioning. Abul Fazal, the celebrated writer of Ain-i-­Akbari and Akbarnama was his close associate. Faizi, Abul Fazal’s brother, a great scholar and poet, also adorned Akbar’s court. Nizam-ud-din and Badauni were two other reputed historians of Akbar’s court. Baz Bahadur, former ruler of Malwa, who later surrendered to Akbar and became one of his courtiers was a man of taste and won great reputation as a musician. The celebrated musician Tansen also adorned his court. Another luminary was Raja  Birbal. He was known for his humor, quick wit, keen intellect and robust common sense. He was also a poet and won from Akbar the title of Kaviraja.
Estimate
Akbar was great as a conqueror but he was even greater as an administrator and organizer. He laid the foundation of an imperial structure of administration, under which the country was successfully governed by his descendants for over a century after his death. A great patron of art, architecture, education and learning, Akbar identified himself completely with the land and its people and did his best to impart Socio-cultural unity to the empire. He inculcated a firm faith in the principle of one country, one government and one people.
It was Akbar who made Mughal empire stable in India by treating all his subjects—Hindus and Muslims—alike and by winning over his subjects by adopting various popular measures like abolition of Jizia, tax on pilgrimage etc. He wanted to make India a nation that would neither be Hindu nor Muslim but only Indian. For this Jawaharlal Nehru has rightly described Akbar as the “Father of Indian Nationalism”.

BIOGRAPHY OF BABUR (FOUNDER OF MOGHUL DYNASTY)

Babur
Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur was born in February, 1483 A.D. The sudden death of his father made Babur the ruler of Farghana, a small state in Transoxania when he was only 12 years old.
Babur was very ambitious even when he was merely a boy. He made a bid to conquer Samarkand, the ancient capital of Chinghiz. He won the city twice, but lost in no times on both occasions. He lost his paternal kingdom Farghana too. Then, for a period he lived the life of a wanderer along with a band of loyal and faithful followers. At last he occupied Kabul in 1504. In 1522 he seized Kandahar and thus rounded off the western boundary of his kingdom.
Having failed to extend his empire in Central Asia, Babur turned his eyes to India. Political conditions in India were favorable to his designs. The Delhi Sultanate had lost its past glory and was on the point of disintegration. In northern India there were several states under the Afghans and Rajputs which were practically independent. Ibrahim  Lodi, the Sultan of Delhi, was not a capable ruler. The governor of Punjab was a disaffected noble named Daulat Khan. Ibrahim’s uncle Alam Khan, who was a serious claimant of the throne of Delhi, was in touch with Babur. They invited Babur to India. Thus, on the eve of Babur’s invasion there was no political stability in North India.
First Battle of Panipat
Babur made four probing raids before the Battle of Panipat. Meanwhile some other disgruntled Afghan nobles invited Babur to invade India. Possibly Rana Sangram Singh of Mewar too had asked Babur to attack Ibrahim Lodi against whom he had a long-standing grudge. All of them hoped that Babur would leave India after defeating Ibrahim Lodi and plundering the country. But Babur had other intentions. He wanted to be the Padshah of India. With this purpose he proceeded towards India in November 1525.
Babur at first captured Lahore. Then, he proceeded towards Delhi. At the head of a big army Ibrahim Lodi faced Babur in Panipat. On 21st April, 1526, the First Battle of Panipat took place. Babur won a decisive victory. Ibrahim’s army was completely routed and he himself was killed in the battle. Babur won this battle by a skillful combination of artillery and swift flanking attacks by his cavalry. The First Battle of Panipat (1526 A.D.) marks the end of the Delhi Sultanate and the rise of the Mughal power in India.
Battle of Khanwa
The victory at Panipat, however, did not make Babur’s position secure. He had yet to defeat Rana Sangram Singh (or Rana Sanga) of Mewar, and the Afghan chiefs of Eastern India. Rana Sanga, who also had asked Babur to invade India, thought that after plundering Babur would go back to Kabul. But Babur’s decision to stay in India spurred the Rana to action. Some Afghan chiefs also joined him. When Babur was informed of the Rana’s war-like preparations, he adopted a policy of conciliation toward the petty Afghan Chiefs and declared war against Rana Sanga. The two armies met at Khanwa on March 17, 1527. The Rajputs fought with their traditional bravery, but they could not withstand the deadly artillery fire. In this hotly contested fight the Rajputs suffered disastrous defeat with heavy loss of life. Rana Sangha escaped and died broken-hearted. With his death the dream of a Rajputs empire received a serious setback. In celebration of this victory Babur assumed the title of Ghazi.
Battle of Ghagra
The Rajputs were thus disposed of, but Babur had still to deal with the Afghan rulers of Bihar and Bengal. In 1529 Babur defeated the combined Afghan forces at the Battle of Ghagra(May, 1529).
Death of Babur
This victory in the Battle of Ghagra brought Babur’s campaign to a close, and in the next year Babur diedon December 26, 1530.
Soldier of fortune as he was, Babur was not the less a man of fine literary taste and critical perception. His autobiography is known as  Tuzk-e-Babri (also Baburnama, Memoirs of Babur) originally written in Turki, is an example of his literary capacity.

INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT BABUR (FOUNDER OF MOGULS)

Babur, the founder of the largest dynasty India has ever seen, passed away on December 26 in 1530. Considered as one of the finest Mughal emperors, Babur succeeded in securing the dynasty's position in Delhi after a series of Sultanates failed to consolidate their seats.
On his 485th death anniversary, we bring to you 10 facts about Mughal emperor Babur:
1.His actual name was Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur. His name is derived from the Persian word 'Babr', which means lion.
2.He was the eldest son of Umar Sheikh Mirza, a direct descendant of Turk-Mongol conqueror Timur, also known as Tamurlane. His mother was a direct descendant of Asia's conqueror Genghis Khan.
3.He ascended the throne of Fergana (now in Uzbekistan) in 1495, at the age of 12. In 1504, he conquered Kabul, which was an important citadel in Central Asia.
4.Babur was invited by Daulat Khan Lodi, a rebel of the Lodi dynasty, in 1524 to invade North India and fight the dynasty and their enemies in Rajputana. Rajputana was ruled by a Hindu Rajput confederacy, led by Mewar king Rana Sanga.
5.In 1526, Babur won the Battle of Panipat against Ibrahim Lodi, the Lodi king. He captured Delhi and founded the greatest dynasty of North India - the Mughal Empire.
6.He also defeated Rana Sanga, who considered Babur as a foreign invader, in the Battle of Khanwa. Rajputana became a subjugated ally of the Mughals since then.
7.There is confusion about Babur's ethnicity. Being a descendant of Timur, he considered himself as a Timurid of Turk. However, Uzbek history suggests that Babur was an ethnic Uzbek.
8.Babur claimed to be very strong and physically fit. He also claimed to have swum across every major river he encountered, including twice across the Ganges River.
9.Babur was well-known for his oratory and literary skills. Although being a religious person, Babur indulged in drinking. He once said, quoting a contemporary poet, "I am drunk, officer. Punish me when I am sober".
10.Till date, he is considered a national hero in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan. He wrote his autobiography, Baburnama, in Chaghatai Turkic. It was translated to Persian during the reign of his grandson Akbar.

EUROPEAN AND MOGHULS

Europeans become a significant presence in India for the first time during the 17th century.They take home descriptions of the ruler's fabulous wealth, causing him to become known as the Great Moghul. They have a touching tale to tell of Shah Jahan's love for his wife and of the "extraordinary building, theTaj Mahal, which he provides for her tomb.And as Shah Jahan's reign merges into "Aurangzeb's, they can astonish their hearers with an oriental melodrama of a kind more often associated withTurkey, telling of how Aurangzeb kills two of his brothers and imprisons his ageing father, Shah Jahan, in the Red Fort at Agra - with the Taj Mahal in his view across the Jumna, from the marble pavilions of his castle prison.
Moghul domes: 1564-1674Thepaintingscommissioned by the Moghul emperors are superb, but it is their architecture which has most astonished the world - and in particular the white marble domes characteristic of the reign of Shah Jahan.There is a long tradition of large Muslim domes in central Asia, going as far back as a tomb inBukharain the 10th century.But the Moghuls develop a style which isvery much their own - allowing the dome to rise from the building in a swelling curve which somehow implies lightness, especially when the material ofthe dome is white marble.
The first dome of this kind surmounts the tomb ofHumayunin Delhi, built between 1564 and 1573. The style is then overlooked for a while - no doubt because of Akbar's" 6c="1" 6f="26" 6r="5,301,476,335"preference for Hindu architecture, as inFatehpur Sikri- until Shah Jahan, the greatest builder of the dynasty, developsit in the 17th century with vigour and sophistication.His first attempt in this line is also his masterpiece - a building which has become the most famous in the world, for its beauty and for the romantic story behind its creation.
Throughout his early career, much of it spent in rebellion against his father,Shah Jahan's greatest support has been his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. But four years after he succeeds to the throne this much loved companion dies, in 1631, giving birth to their fourteenth child. TheTaj Mahal, her tomb in Agra, is the expression of Shah Jahan's grief. Such "romantic gestures are rare among monarchs (theEleanor Crossescome to mind as another), and certainly none hasever achieved its commemorative purpose so brilliantly.There is no known architect for the Taj. Itseems probable that Shah Jahan himself takes a leading role in directing his masons - particularly since his numerous other buildings evolve within a related style.
The Taj Mahal is built between 1632 and 1643. In 1644 the emperor commissions the vast Friday Mosque for his new city in Delhi. In 1646 he begins the more intimate Pearl Mosque in the Red Fort in Agra. Meanwhile he is building a new Red Fort in Delhi, with white marble pavilions for his own lodgings above massive red sandstone walls. At FatehpurSikri he provides a new shrine for the Sufi saint to whom his grandfather,Akbar, was so devoted.All these buildings contain variations on the theme of white and subtly curving domes, though none can rival Shah Jahan's first great example in the Taj." 6c="1" 6f="26" 6r="6,588,427,622"Aurangzeb, Shah Jahan's son, does not "6c="1" 6f="26" 6r="221,667,472,701"inherit his father's "6c="1" 6f="26" 6r="221,706,433,740"passionate interest in architecture. But he commissions two admirable buildings inthe same tradition. One is the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore, begun in 1673; even larger than his father's" 6c="1" 6f="26" 6r="221,1096,306,1130"Friday Mosquein Delhi, it rivals it in the beauty of its domes. The other, begun in1662, goes to the other extreme; the tinyPearl Mosque in the Red Fort in Delhi, begun in 1662 for Aurangzeb's private "6c="1" 6f="26" 6r="4,1295,449,1329"worship, is a small miracle of white marble.It is these marble highlights which catch the eye. But the Red Forts containing thetwo Pearl Mosques are themselves extraordinary examples of 17th centurycastles.
The Moghuls after Aurangzeb: 18th centuryWhen the Moghul emperor Aurangzeb is in his eighties, and the empire in disarray, an Italian living in India (Niccolao Manucci)Predicts appalling bloodshedon the old man's death, worse even than that which" 6c="1" 6f="26" 6r="4,399,473,433"disfigured thestart of Aurangzeb's reign" 6c="4278216396" 6f="26" 6r="174,438,470,472". The Italian is right. In the war of succession which begins in 1707, two of Aurangzeb's sons and three of his "6c="1" 6f="26" 6r="4,555,399,589"grandsons are killed.Violence and disruption is the pattern of the future. The first six Moghul emperorshave ruled for a span of nearly 200 years.In the 58 years after Aurangzeb's death, "6c="1" 6f="26" 6r="4,750,468,784"there are eight emperors - four of whom are murdered and one deposed.
This degree of chaos has a disastrous effect on the empire built up byAkbar. The stability of Moghul India depends onthe loyalty of those ruling its many regions. Some are administered on the emperor's behalf by governors, who are "6c="1" 6f="26" 6r="4,197,466,231"members of the military hierarchy. Others are ruled by princely families, who through treaty or marriage have become allies of the emperor.In the 18th century rulers of each kind continue to profess loyalty to the Moghul emperor in Delhi, but in practice they behave with increasing independence. The empire fragments into the many small principalities whose existence will greatly help theBritish in Indiato gain control, by playing rival neighbours off against each other.
In the short term, though, there is a more immediate danger. During the 1730s a conqueror in the classic mould ofGenghis KhanorTimuremerges in Persia. He seizes the Persian throne in 1736, taking the titleNadir Shah.Later that year he captures the stronghold of Kandahar. The next major fortress on the route east, that ofKabul, is still in Moghul hands - a treasured possession since the time of Babur. NadirShah takes it in 1738, giving him control of the territory up to the Khyber Pass. Beyond the Khyber lies the fabulous wealth of India. Like Genghis Khan in 1221, and Timur in 1398, Nadir Shah moves on.
In December 1738 Nadir Shah crosses the Indus at Attock. Two months later hedefeats the army of the Moghul emperor, Mohammed Shah. In March he enters Delhi. The conqueror has iron control over his troops and at first the city is calm. It is broken when an argument between citizens and some Persian soldiers escalates into a riot in which 900 Persians are killed. Even now Nadir Shah forbids reprisals until he has inspected the scene. But when he rides through the city, stones are thrown at him. Someone fires a musket which kills an officer close to the shah.In reprisal he orders a massacre. The killing lasts for a day. The number of the dead is more than 30,000.
Amazingly, when the Moghul emperor begs for mercy for his people, the Persian conqueror is able to grant it. The killing stops, for the collection of Delhi's "6c="1" 6f="26" 6r="4,119,466,153"valuables to begin.Untold wealth travels west with the Persians. The booty includes the two most spectacular possessions of the Moghul emperors - the Peacock Throne, commissioned by Shah Jahan, and the Koh-i-Nur diamond. Nadir Shah is able tosend a decree home from Delhi remittingall taxes in Persia for three years. In addition to the jewels and the gold, he takes with him 1000 elephants, 100 masons and 200 carpenters. The parallel with the visit ofTimur, 341 years previously, is almost exact.
Europeans in the fragmenting empire: 1746-1760The raid by Nadir Shah is the greatest single disaster to have struck the Moghulempire, but a more serious long-term threat soon becomes evident. In 1746 open warfare breaks out between European nations on Indian soil, when a French force seizesMadrasfrom the British.In the south, where Aurangzeb spent hislast yearstrying to impose imperial control, French and British armies now march against each other in shifting alliances with local potentates. India begins a new role as a place of importance to the European powers, andin particular to Britain. The development does not bode well for the Moghul emperors in Delhi.
Both the French and the English East India Companies, to advance their commercial interests, offer military support in dynastic struggles within powerful Indian states. Helping a candidate to the throne opens a new region of influence, a new market.The death in 1748 of the Moghul viceroyin Hyderabad is followed by French and English assistance for rival sons of the dead ruler. Soon the two European nations are also fighting on opposite sides in a war of succession in the Carnatic (the coastal strip north and south of Madras).The French candidate succeeds in Hyderabad, and the English favourite prevails in the Carnatic. But the most striking event in either campaign is a dramatic intervention by Robert Clive in 1751. With 200 British and 300 Indian soldiers he seizes Arcot (the capital of the Carnatic) and holds it through a seven-week siege.His action, and his subsequent defeat of a French and Indian force in battle, wins the throne for his candidate. It also has the effect of diminishing the prestige in Indian eyes of the French army. Until now the French have had the better of the British in India (most notably in their capture ofMadrasin 1746).
France and Britain remain rivals in southern India for the rest of the century. It is in the north that the balance changes significantly in Britain's "6c="1" 6f="26" 6r="4,119,468,153"favour, after a disaster of 1756. In that year the nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daula, overwhelms the British settlement in Calcutta and locks some of his captives overnight in a room of the fort. The details of precisely what happened that night are obscure, but the event becomes known to the British as theBlack Hole of Calcutta.To recover Calcutta, Clive sails north from Madras in October 1756. The fort is back in British hands by January 1757. But Clive now decides to intervene further in the politics of Bengal.
He aims to place a more compliant nawab, Mir Jafar, on the throne of Bengal, and he achieves his purpose after defeating Siraj-ud-Daula at Plassey in June 1757. For the next three years Clive virtually rules the rich province of Bengal, using Mir Jafar as his political puppet. In doing so he establishes the pattern by which British control will gradually spread through India, in a patchwork of separate alliances with local rulers.In 1760 Clive returns to England, the possessor of vast and rapidly acquired wealth. Here too he sets a pattern, this time an unmistakably bad one. He is the first of the 'nabobs, whose fortunes derive from jobbery and bribes while administering Indian affairs.